INTRODUCTION
The United States has led the world in the use of space for over three decades. A primary factor in this leadership has been a successful national security space program. The United States will conduct activities in space necessary for strengthening and maintaining national security. DoD space forces will provide the means to exploit and, if required, control space to assist in the successful execution of the National Security Strategy and National Military Strategy.
SPACE FORCES AND NATIONAL DEFENSE
Over the last decade, space forces have emerged as a major element of U.S. military power. Taken together, each unique space system contributes to the overall capability of space forces to support terrestrial forces. U.S. utilization of these space systems has evolved from an initial focus on providing peacetime support for national decision makers and strategic nuclear operations to more extensive integration into overall force structure and broader application in support of the warfighter.
Space systems provide a comparative national advantage for the United States. U.S. preeminence in the military uses of space during the Cold War contributed significantly to accomplishing America's national security objectives. Achieving post-Cold War objectives in the most effective and efficient way requires that U.S. space capabilities be fully utilized for national defense. Space systems help confer a decisive advantage upon U.S. and friendly forces in terms of combat timing, battlespace awareness, operational tempo, synchronization, maneuver, and the integrated application of firepower.
Space systems are an integral part of the overall deterrent posture of the U.S. armed forces. Any nation contemplating an action inimical to U.S. national security interests must be concerned about U.S. space capabilities. Space forces help to provide unprecedented global situational awareness to identify and respond to regional threats anywhere in the world. Space forces thus help ensure that hostile actions will be discovered by the United States and may introduce an element of uncertainty into the minds of potential adversaries.
More specifically, space forces provide unique capabilities for collecting and disseminating information for determining other nations' capabilities and intentions. This includes information for indications, warning, and responding to the threat or use of force against the United States, its allies, and friends. Space systems perform global monitoring and are often the first to spot impending conflicts and thereby allow diplomatic actions to avert war. Space systems thus are critical to the ability of the United States to sustain a credible deterrent posture.
SPACE COMMAND, CONTROL, COMMUNICATIONS, COMPUTERS, AND INTELLIGENCE (C4I) AND THE REVOLUTION IN MILITARY AFFAIRS
Advances in technology are fundamentally altering the conduct of modern warfare. Driven primarily by improvements in information collection, processing, and transmission technology, this revolution will have dramatic impact on military operations. The full impact of these technological improvements on military operations will only be realized if these technologies are normalized, operationalized, and integrated into the structure of the U.S. armed forces.
Space systems will contribute greatly to the revolution because of the unique capabilities they provide for intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance and command, control, communications, and computers. In particular, space systems provide:
The utilization and control of space will enable the United States to establish and sustain dominance over an area of operations. Establishing such dominance will be the key to achieving success in a future crisis or conflict. It will greatly enhance the ability of U.S. and coalition forces to fight on favorable terms by taking the initiative away from an adversary. In short, space-based systems help to improve operational effectiveness, efficiency, and interoperability; maintain technological superiority; and support worldwide deployment, sustainment, and operations of U.S. military forces. By providing almost global coverage, space systems help to compensate for reductions of forward positioned infrastructure and provide ready, in-place capabilities to support U.S. forces worldwide.
ENHANCING WARFIGHTER OPERATIONS
Space systems played important roles in every contingency where U.S. forces were engaged over the past year. The combination of space-based navigation, weather, communications, reconnaissance, and multispectral imagery are providing critical support to U.S. forces in the Former Republic of Yugoslavia and were a key asset in the rescue of a downed U.S. airman. In Haiti, the ultra-high frequency (UHF) Follow-On, the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS), and Milstar I military satellite communications systems provided operational support to U.S. forces for command and control as well as other functions.
To enhance the contributions of space forces to U.S. military operations, space forces were also integrated into joint and Service exercise schedules. U.S. Space Command components are actively engaged in supporting each combatant commander. Space systems directly supported exercises including Ulchi Focus Lens, Atlantic Resolve, Roving Sands, Unified Endeavor, Bulwark Bronze, Keen Edge, Tempo Bravo, and Cobra Gold. By fully integrating space capabilities into military operations, combatant commanders are better able to tailor their campaign planning and operations to more effectively employ available forces and achieve objectives at the least risk and cost.
SPACE FORCE STRUCTURE
DoD space force structure is comprised of space systems and capabilities in four mission areas: space support, force enhancement, space control, and force application.
Space Support
The space support mission area includes capabilities for launching and deploying space vehicles, maintaining and sustaining spacecraft on-orbit, and deorbiting and recovering space vehicles as required. The Eastern Range at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, and the Western Range at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, are the nation's primary space launch facilities. DoD employs Pegasus, Taurus, Delta II, Atlas II, and Titan II and IV space launch vehicles as well as Inertial Upper Stage and Centaur upper stage boosters to deliver payloads into orbit. Centralized command and control of DoD satellites is provided by the 50th Space Wing at Falcon Air Force Base, Colorado. The Air Force Satellite Control Network provides telemetry, tracking, and control for most DoD satellites. In addition, the Naval Satellite Operations Center at Point Mugu, California, also provides support for Navy satellite systems. As a backup, Air Force Transportable Mission Ground Stations can provide mobile command and control capabilities for certain DoD satellites.
Force Enhancement
The force enhancement mission area includes capabilities for reconnaissance and surveillance, targeting, tactical warning and attack assessment, communications, navigation, and environmental monitoring. Space-based reconnaissance and surveillance systems support virtually all DoD activities. The National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), a joint activity of DoD and the Intelligence Community, provides spaceborne assets needed to acquire intelligence worldwide for such purposes as supporting the planning and conduct of military operations and monitoring arms control agreements.
| Table IV-17 | ||||||||
| Space-Based Forces, FY 1996-97 (Projected) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Satellite Systems | Mission | FY 1996 | FY 1997 | |||||
| On-Orbit (Primary Mission Capable) | Avail- able for Launch | In Produc- tion Pipeline | On-Orbit (Primary Mission Capable) | Avail- able for Launch | In Produc- tion Pipeline | Unit Cost ($M) | ||
| Defense Support Program | Missile Warning | [a] | 4 | 2 | [a] | 4 | 1 | $396.9 [b] |
| Global Positioning System | Navigation | 24 | 5 | 20 | 24 | 6 | 17 | $94.6 [b] |
| Nuclear Detonation (NUDET) Detection System | Nuclear Detonation Detection | 24 | 5 | 20 | 24 | 6 | 17 | $8.3 [d] |
| Defense Meteor- ological Satellite Program | Weather and Environ- mental Surveil- lance | 2 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 6 | 1 | $209.1 [b] |
| Defense Satellite Communi- cations System | Communi- cations | 5 | 5 | 0 | 5 | 5 | 0 | $70.4 [c] |
| Milstar | Communi- cations | 2 | 0 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 4 | [a & b] |
| Fleet Satcom System | Communi- cations | 4 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | N/A [b] |
| UHF Follow-On | Communi- cations | 5 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 1 | 2 | $184.5 [b] |
| NOTES: [a.] Data is classified. [b.] As reported in Selected Acquisition Report (SAR). [c.] Unit Cost for latest Operational Block (costs not reported under SAR). [d.] FY 1997 costs reflects unit cost of latest unit procured, adjusted to FY 1997 dollars for comparison. | ||||||||
Through Service Tactical Exploitation of National Capabilities (TENCAP) programs and direct links, selected national space systems provide near real-time data and exploited products to combatant commanders and operational forces. Emphasis is on the provision of sensor-to-shooter information flow directly to the tactical level.
DoD operates space and ground-based systems to provide the National Command Authorities (NCA) with timely, reliable, and unambiguous tactical warning and attack assessment data for force survival or retaliatory decisions against air, space, or ballistic missile threats. The space-based Defense Support Program provides global detection and reporting of missile and space launches. A network of ground-based radars provides detection, tracking, and warning of ballistic missile attack against the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the European continent. In addition, the NUDET Detection System provides timely, reliable, and accurate detection, locational fixes, and yield readings of nuclear detonations for strike, damage, and attack assessments; force management; and test ban monitoring.
Space-based military satellite communications (MILSATCOM) systems provide communications services for numerous DoD and other U.S. government users. The Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) provides super high frequency secure voice and high data rate transmissions for worldwide military command and control, crisis management, relay of intelligence and early warning data, treaty monitoring, diplomatic and Presidential communications, and communications support for deployed tactical forces. DSCS also provides limited anti-jam worldwide connectivity for critical functions such as tactical warning and attack assessment and Emergency Action Message dissemination for the NCA, Joint Staff, command centers, and other users.
The Milstar satellite system provides extremely high frequency (EHF) voice and low-to-medium data rate transmissions for worldwide C4I support to the warfighting CINCs. Additionally, Milstar provides antijam, survivable, and enduring connectivity for tactically deployed forces and can transmit Emergency Action Messages and tactical warning and attack assessment information.
The Fleet Satellite Communications and UHF Follow-On systems provide UHF and EHF communications for mobile forces, including fleet broadcast services and control communications to designated Single Integrated Operational Plan/nuclear-capable users for Emergency Action Message dissemination, force direction, and force reporting. Air Force satellite communications also are used by a limited number of high priority non-nuclear users for operational missions, contingency and crisis operations, and exercise support.
The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) provides all-weather, day/night, three dimensional, precise navigation, positioning, timing, and velocity data to land-based, seaborne, and airborne U.S. and allied forces, as well as other national security, civil, and commercial users. GPS enhances force coordination, command and control, target mapping, the probability of target acquisition, flexible routing, and weapons delivery accuracy, especially at night and in adverse weather. The Department of Defense announced Full Operational Capability for military GPS applications on July 17, 1995 based upon successful completion of full operational testing. The 24-satellite constellation is providing consistent, reliable service to a broad and rapidly growing community of military and civil users.
DoD employs a combination of military, civil, and commercial space systems to help meet requirements for environmental monitoring. Land remote sensing systems provide multi-spectral imagery (MSI) of the earth for numerous DoD activities as well as other national security, civil, and commercial users. MSI data is a critical source for producing mapping, charting, and geodesy (MC&G) products. MSI products and data are used for military planning and targeting, MC&G, hydrography, counternarcotics operations, and monitoring arms control agreements. In addition, the GEOSAT Follow-On system will provide real-time oceanographic topographical data such as wave heights, currents, and fronts to naval users when it becomes operational. The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program collects and disseminates global visible and infrared cloud cover imagery and other meteorological, oceanographic, and solar-geophysical data for operational forces. DoD augments this dedicated military space system by using National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and international meteorological satellite systems.
Space Control
The space control mission area includes capabilities for surveillance of space, space system protection, prevention, and negation. The Space Surveillance Network provides space object cataloging and identification, satellite attack warning, timely notification to U.S. forces of satellite flyover, space treaty monitoring, and scientific and technical intelligence-gathering. DoD space systems are designed, developed, and operated to assure the survivability and endurance of space mission capability in peace, crisis, and through appropriate levels of conflict commensurate with national security requirements. The survivability of DoD space systems is enhanced, as appropriate, through such protection measures as satellite proliferation, hardening, communications cross-links, and communications security protection. Military missions are also enhanced by diplomatic, legal, or military measures to preclude an adversary's hostile use of space systems and services. Space system negation can be accomplished by methods to counter the territorial or space-based elements of a space system or their data linkages.
Force Application
The force application mission area would include capabilities for space-based ballistic missile defense capabilities and power projection. ABM Treaty compliant research in this area is aimed at developing advanced follow-on technologies offering promise for improved performance in both tactical and strategic defenses as insurance against possible future threats. The DoD space force structure does not include any capabilities for power projection.
FUNDING AND MODERNIZATION
Major changes have occurred in the international environment which require a refocusing of DoD space efforts. These changes include transformation of the international security environment, advances in military technology, increased reliance by the warfighters on space forces, and global proliferation of space systems and services.
Specifically, changes in the international environment have refocused DoD space efforts on the normalization, operationalization, and integration of space capabilities into the overall force structure of the warfighter. Since space systems directly support the revolution in ISR and C4, it is imperative that their capabilities be recognized and used effectively. This includes normalizing space operations and integrating them into the execution and operational structure of the armed forces.
Funding for DoD space programs has remained relatively stable over the past four years despite reductions in the overall defense budget. The funding changes from FY 1992 to FY 1995 reflect a course correction due to changes in strategic defense requirements resulting from the end of the Cold War and lessons learned from Operation Desert Storm. Growth in outyear funding reflects development and procurement of next generation communications, navigation, meteorological, and launch systems to maintain and modernize U.S. space systems to meet national security requirements.
SPACE LAUNCH
Access to space is a key enabling capability for DoD to effectively use space. Although current U.S. space launch systems meet DoD needs, they are becoming increasingly costly to use. The President's National Space Transportation Policy seeks to balance efforts to sustain and modernize existing launch capabilities with the need to invest in the development of improved future capabilities. In that policy, DoD is designated as the lead agency for improvement and evolution of the current expendable launch vehicle (ELV) fleet, including appropriate technology development. DoD objectives for this effort are to reduce costs while maintaining capability, reliability, operability, responsiveness, and safety.
To implement this guidance, DoD has initiated an Evolved ELV (EELV) program. This program will eventually replace the medium- and heavy-lift launch systems currently in the inventory. The program is defining a new relationship with the launch industry emphasizing a measured development effort. DoD seeks to use innovative methods to allow U.S. industry a greater leadership role in free market access to space. The medium-lift EELV is currently planned for first launch in 2001 and the heavy-lift version in 2005. Both would be based on a core system which would lead to a cost-effective family of vehicles.
SPACE-BASED INFRARED SYSTEM
DoD is proceeding with the development of a new constellation of infrared detection satellites consisting of highly elliptical, geosynchronous, and low earth orbiting elements. The primary purpose of the Space-Based Infrared System program is to be the follow-on to the Defense Support Program and provide an integrated system supporting missile warning, missile defense, technical intelligence, and battlespace characterization. The planned first launch of this new system is 2002. In addition, a flight demonstration of the low earth orbit satellites will be conducted to validate the operational concept and to investigate further phenomenologies in additional infrared frequencies. Deployment of the low-altitude component may also permit the design of the high-altitude constellation to be simplified in later production blocks.
MILITARY SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
The Department of Defense is conducting a comprehensive study on a future Military Satellite Communications (MILSATCOM) architecture which will provide a road map for systems development and investment strategy. Two systems which will modernize MILSATCOM in the 21st century are Milstar and the Global Broadcast Service (GBS).
Defense planning has emphasized the increased tactical needs of U.S. armed forces for space-based communications. To implement this guidance, the emphasis of the Milstar program is to provide medium data-rate communications that will provide survivable, difficult to detect, jam-resistant communications to tactical forces worldwide. This new emphasis was embodied in a redesign of the Milstar II system and a reduction of the constellation size for the Milstar system from six to four satellites. Additionally, the Department will field an interim polar extremely high frequency (EHF) capability to provide high latitude EHF coverage.
The Department will seek to provide advanced EHF capabilities similar to the current Milstar system on a platform that can be launched on a future medium-lift vehicle vice the heavy-lift vehicle required today. This program will lead to satellite systems which could satisfy requirements for mid and high latitude EHF communications needs.
With affordability a key concern, the Department's MILSATCOM architecture study looks closely at not only military system solutions, but also at commercial technology. A prime example of the latter is the commercial development of direct television satellite broadcast systems. This technology created DoD-wide interest in GBS as a possible solution to capacity shortfalls and efficient use of bandwidth.
The Joint Requirements Oversight Council recently approved the Joint Mission Needs Statement for the GBS. The GBS would become a part of the overall MILSATCOM architecture to meet the warfighter's need for increased worldwide, high capacity communications throughput capability and support. The GBS is a new program initiative which has recently been approved for implementation. It capitalizes on commercial direct broadcast satellite technology to provide high data rate information to U.S. warfighters. GBS is expected to fill two key warfighter needs. First, with high data rate service to many users at once, GBS can reduce the need to send information more than once. Secondly, GBS provides for very high delivery rates to very small user terminals. No other currently fielded DoD satellite system is capable of providing this type of capability. Initial operational capability is feasible by 1998.
Communications are currently spread among three frequency bands on as many as six satellite systems. All these systems will be due for replacement during the 2003 to 2006 timeframe. With affordability a key concern, the Department has initiated an intensive architecture study to determine the best mix of military and civil capabilities, including commercial alternatives, to support military satellite communications needs for the next century.
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
GPS has become an invaluable asset to international civil and commercial users who are designing systems and developing plans which incorporate GPS. DoD continues to work closely with civil agencies to enhance the GPS contribution to U.S. and allied civil and commercial users, while guarding against a breach to U.S. national security. Study and limited testing devoted to GPS protection and denial to enemies on the battlefield continue. These efforts are key to continuity of GPS operations in hostile environments. The Department has proposed to Congress a plan for effective maintenance of GPS services and acquisition of the next block (Block IIF) of GPS satellites to sustain the constellation beyond the year 2000.
METEOROLOGICAL SATELLITE CONVERGENCE
The President's decision to converge U.S. polar-orbiting operational environmental satellite systems will merge the follow-on programs for the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) and the NOAA Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite (POES) Program and capitalize on NASA's Earth Observing System technologies. An Integrated Program Office (IPO) led by NOAA, has been created for the planning, development, acquisition, management, technology transition, launch, and operations of the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS). DoD is the lead agency responsible for supporting the IPO in NPOESS system acquisitions. The NPOESS program also carries out a National Performance Review objective of reducing the cost of acquiring and operating polar-orbiting environmental satellite systems, while continuing to satisfy military and civil operational requirements.
The NPOESS program is evaluating the requirements for a three-satellite constellation. The preferred architectural option includes a European satellite as one of the three satellites, provided this satellite meets specified U.S. conditions and includes the capability to selectively deny critical data to an adversary during crisis or war yet ensure the use of such data by U.S. and allied military forces. A NOAA-led team that includes DoD and NASA is negotiating with the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites for provision of the mid-morning satellite of the three-satellite converged constellation. Additional savings will be realized through a consolidation of DoD and NOAA ground stations which support the environmental satellites. DoD is working closely with NOAA and NASA to ensure NPOESS satisfies national security requirements.
CONCLUSION
Space forces are essential for the successful execution of the National Security Strategy and National Military Strategy. Military space systems provide force multipliers that complement and enhance the capabilities of U.S. operational forces. The operational and modernization initiatives planned for the coming years will ensure DoD space forces will retain the capability and versatility to accomplish their missions effectively and efficiently in support of U.S. national security objectives.
