INTRODUCTION
Mobility forces are the air, sea, and ground systems that transport military personnel and materiel throughout the world. They include airlift and sealift, as well as road and rail systems. Airlift provides a rapid and flexible means of deploying and sustaining forces in distant regions, while sealift allows the deployment of large numbers of heavy forces, as well as fuel and supplies. In many instances, deploying forces are able to draw on equipment and materiel prepositioned at sea or on land near the location of a crisis, so prepositioning is also considered a mobility program. Aerial-refueling forces contribute to mobility by permitting the nonstop deployment of tactical air and bomber forces and by extending the range of airlift aircraft when en route bases are not available. In operations ranging from humanitarian relief to combat, mobility forces enable the United States to deploy forces quickly and sustain them until their mission is complete. In the post-Cold War era, the drawdown of U.S. troop strength overseas and the increasing number of unstable situations abroad combine to place a high value on mobility forces.
MOBILITY MISSIONS
Mobility forces play an essential role in the U.S. defense strategy. They are a vital component of the nation's response to contingencies ranging from emergency evacuations of U.S. citizens to major regional conflicts (MRCs). In peacetime, they contribute to overseas presence and humanitarian assistance missions.
Major Regional Conflicts
Mobility forces would be key to the deployment and sustainment of U.S. forces in any MRC. Should a conflict erupt with little warning, the United States would want to respond promptly and with sufficient strength to help indigenous forces halt the aggression and restore the peace. Airlift, augmented by prepositioning, would carry out the initial deployments. These first flights would deliver primarily aviation and light ground forces, plus some heavier ground elements. The remaining heavy combat forces would deploy by sea.
Intratheater mobility forces would move arriving forces to initial operating locations and support them over the course of the conflict, redeploying them as necessary to meet operational demands. In addition, intratheater forces contribute to other special missions, such as airdrops and medical evacuations.
Intervention and Peace Operations
Military interventions and peace operations, though smaller in scale than major conflicts, still place heavy demands on mobility forces. As in larger contingencies, mobility forces contribute both to the deployment and sustainment of forces. Depending on the location, significant amounts of material must sometimes be moved, particularly if troops are sent to a region where the infrastructure is limited and host nation support is either lacking or not immediately available.
To cite two recent examples: mobility forces supported the deployment of the U.S.-led multinational force to Haiti, and subsequently supported the United Nations mission there. Between September 1994 and November 1995, U.S. transport aircraft flew more than 1,750 missions to Haiti, delivering approximately 24,000 short tons of cargo and 55,000 passengers. Mobility forces also are playing a crucial role in deploying and sustaining U.S. forces participating in Operation Joint Endeavor in the former Republic of Yugoslavia. In the first six weeks of this operation, U.S. transport aircraft flew more than 1,600 missions into Bosnia and Herzegovina, Hungary, and other staging locations throughout Europe.
Humanitarian Assistance
Mobility forces are often the first on the scene with humanitarian assistance, bringing relief workers and supplies. The ability to respond rapidly to crises worldwide is a key requirement of this mission, as is the ability to operate in austere environments. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, for example, following the reopening of the Sarajevo airport in September 1995, the United States conducted 87 airlift missions, delivering almost 1,000 short tons of food and supplies. Mobility forces also are employed in response to domestic emergencies. During April and May 1995, in the aftermath of the Oklahoma City bombing, U.S. military and commercial aircraft flew approximately 400 short tons of food and supplies to the city, along with more than 1,300 relief workers.
Overseas Presence
In the course of their own training, mobility forces move supplies on a regular basis to U.S. troops stationed overseas. Additionally, mobility forces are an integral part of military exercise programs. Exercises help train U.S. forces and those of friends and allies, signal the United States' interest in the security of nations and regions overseas, and demonstrate the nation's ability to move forces quickly to those areas. The prepositioning of equipment and materiel also is a strong symbol of the United States' commitment to particular nations or regions.
MOBILITY REQUIREMENTS
Intertheater Mobility Forces
The 1992 Mobility Requirements Study (MRS) established mobility requirements for the post-Cold War era. It defined baseline requirements for intertheater (or strategic) mobility and proposed a long-range investment plan to meet them. Specifically, the study validated the need for 120 C-17 aircraft and called for the acquisition of additional medium-speed sealift vessels and afloat prepositioning ships.
A follow-on study, conducted in 1994, updated the original MRS findings to reflect changes in force structure and warfighting strategy resulting from the 1993 Bottom-Up Review. The 1994 analysis -- known formally as the Mobility Requirements Study Bottom-Up Review Update, or MRS BURU -- reaffirmed the need for increases in key mobility components. In particular, it validated the original MRS recommendation for the procurement of additional ships for afloat prepositioning and for surge deployments of forces based in the continental United States (CONUS). The MRS BURU also examined intertheater airlift requirements in detail. Based on the study's findings, DoD has established an intertheater airlift objective of between 49 and 52 million ton-miles per day of cargo capacity. The precise amount of airlift needed will depend on the level of prepositioning that can be achieved overseas. The Department is continuing to evaluate prepositioning options, as well as other potential warfighting enhancements, that could result in changes to the airlift objective.
MOBILITY ROLES IN MRCS
The requirements established by the MRS BURU were based on an evaluation of mobility force needs for two nearly simultaneous MRCs. Mobility forces would be heavily involved in all phases of a major regional conflict, contributing both to the deployment and sustainment of combat forces. Immediately upon a decision to commit forces, ground units and aviation support elements would be dispatched to the region from bases in the United States and abroad. These forces would deploy by air, and would draw the bulk of their equipment and supplies from stocks prepositioned for them on land or afloat. They would be joined in the theater by additional Marine ground units arriving on amphibious ships. Combat aircraft would self-deploy, relying on tankers for aerial-refueling support en route to their destination. These early-deploying forces, operating in conjunction with naval units at sea, would mount an initial defense and secure ports and airfields for the arrival of follow-on forces. Studies and wargames have confirmed that the prompt availability of forces in a conflict theater is critical not only to the initial defense but to the successful execution of the entire warfighting strategy.
As the buildup continued, heavy combat and support forces would begin arriving by sea, with fast sealift ships making the first deliveries. Airlift would continue moving personnel and high-priority supplies and equipment into the theater. Once sufficient forces were available, a large-scale, air-land counteroffensive would be launched. Mobility forces would provide critical support for this phase of the operation, delivering reinforcements and any additional equipment and supplies needed to sustain combat.
Once the conflict had ended, mobility forces would begin returning U.S. troops to their regular operating locations at home and abroad. Mobility forces also would provide critical support for any residual forces that remained in the theater, delivering supplies and other material needed to sustain the forces' presence.
As the foregoing discussion shows, the three mobility force components -- airlift, sealift, and prepositioning -- complement each other in deploying and sustaining U.S. forces in conflict theaters. Airlift, augmented by prepositioning, provides for the rapid but limited delivery of combat units needed initially to halt an invasion. Sealift delivers the majority of heavy forces and accompanying supplies during the buildup of combat power in preparation for a counterattack. As the counterattack unfolds, sealift continues to deliver the bulk of material needed to sustain the forces in combat. The chart on the preceding page illustrates these points, showing the sequence in which mobility components are employed in a hypothetical MRC and the relative contributions of the individual components over time.
Intratheater Mobility Forces
As a follow-on to the MRS BURU, the Department is conducting an Intratheater Lift Analysis. This study will identify unit movement and sustainment requirements at the intratheater level, which in turn will lead to the definition of requirements for intratheater mobility forces, including aircraft and common-user trucks.
Operational Support Airlift
Operational support airlift (OSA) aircraft are used to meet wartime transport requirements of regional military commanders and the Service secretaries. OSA aircraft range in size from smaller, executive-style planes such as the C-12 and C-21 to mid-sized aircraft like the C-9. In conflict theaters, these aircraft move small, high-priority cargoes, such as critical medical supplies and spare parts, and provide transport for senior personnel managing theater operations. Within the United States, OSA wartime missions support the mobilization of both active and reserve forces.
The 1995 report of the Commission on Roles and Missions concluded that the inventory of OSA aircraft should be reduced. In response to the Commission's observations, the Joint Staff evaluated the number and mix of OSA aircraft that would be needed to support two nearly simultaneous major regional conflicts. As a result of that assessment, the Department has established a requirement for 391 OSA aircraft, a reduction of 118 relative to today's force level. In addition, the Department is exploring ways to streamline OSA operations. The Joint Staff, the U.S. Transportation Command (USTRANSCOM), and the Military Services are evaluating options for consolidating the scheduling of OSA aircraft. As part of this effort, the Department is fielding and testing a new standard scheduling system -- the Joint Air Logistics Information System, or JALIS -- which will be used to coordinate the scheduling of the entire DoD OSA fleet.
FORCE STRUCTURE AND CAPABILITIES
The Department of Defense has a long-standing policy of relying on commercial transportation resources to the extent they are capable of meeting military requirements. For example, DoD depends almost entirely on commercial ground and rail systems to move forces to ports of embarkation in the United States. Commercial aircraft provide the majority of passenger airlift capacity and make a significant contribution to the movement of military cargo, while commercial ships provide most of the capacity to move containerized cargo by sea. There are, however, certain militarily-unique capabilities that the civil sector cannot provide. Mobility forces supply those capabilities and carry out missions in circumstances where commercial systems cannot respond or cannot do so quickly enough. In this way, mobility forces complement commercial transportation systems. Readiness for both the military and civilian sectors is maintained by using all mobility segments -- active, reserve, civilian, and industry -- in peacetime to support the large customer base of the U.S. government throughout the world.
Airlift
The Civil Reserve Air Fleet (CRAF) consists of passenger and cargo aircraft that commercial carriers have agreed to make available for DoD's use in times of crisis. In return for their participation in CRAF, carriers are given preference for DoD's peacetime passenger and cargo business and are guaranteed that the burden of carrying out a deployment will be spread fairly among all participants.
Calling up CRAF Stage I aircraft provides DoD access to about 10 percent of the passenger capacity in the long-range U.S. commercial fleet and 21 percent of the cargo capacity. With the addition of Stage II aircraft, those figures rise to 28 percent and 47 percent, respectively. Aircraft from Stage III bring the CRAF contribution, as a share of total U.S. long-range commercial aircraft capacity, to 50 percent for passengers and nearly 65 percent for cargo. All three stages of CRAF are activated by the Commander in Chief of USTRANSCOM, with the approval of the Secretary of Defense. Stage III aircraft are called on only for the most demanding military deployments. Fully activated, the CRAF fleet accounts for 93 percent of the total passenger capacity in the U.S. airlift fleet, and for 32 percent of total cargo capacity. CRAF also provides a significant portion of intertheater aeromedical evacuation capability.
Although civil aircraft provide important capabilities, there are some essential characteristics they do not have. Most importantly, they cannot carry the full range of military equipment. Of the cargo (including bulk cargo) that would have to be moved by air in a major regional conflict, only about 45 percent of the total tonnage would fit into the largest commercial cargo aircraft. Smaller aircraft could load only about 35 percent. Examples of equipment that cannot be accommodated in commercial aircraft are tanks, air defense weapons, many helicopters, and most trucks. Additionally, civil aircraft cannot air-drop cargo or personnel, nor can they provide specialized capabilities, such as the rapid off-load required in combat situations. Commercial planes also require relatively long runways and special material-handling equipment and therefore cannot operate in austere airfields.
Military aircraft provide the full range of these capabilities. The FY 1996 military fleet consists of 104 (primary mission aircraft inventory, or PMAI) C-5s, 187 PMAI C-141s, 22 PMAI C-17s, and 432 PMAI C-130s. These aircraft are assigned to active, Air National Guard, and Air Force Reserve squadrons. The C-5s, C-141s, and C-17s in active squadrons are flown by both active and reserve associate crews; C-130s are flown by crews from the respective component -- active or reserve -- in which the aircraft are maintained.
The chart below shows the current and projected contribution of military and CRAF aircraft to total U.S. intertheater airlift capacity.
As these examples show, the reserve component plays a critical role in U.S. airlift operations. For contingencies not involving mobilization, reservists serving on a voluntary basis account for roughly 30 percent of U.S. airlift crews. In a major regional conflict with timely mobilization, this share increases to almost 60 percent.
Aerial Refueling
The aerial-refueling fleet consists of 473 PMAI KC-135s and 54 PMAI KC-10s. These aircraft support the deployment and employment of conventional forces, with the KC-135 force also providing airborne-refueling support for nuclear-armed bombers. The KC-135 and KC-10 also can carry cargo, with the latter aircraft possessing a significant capability to perform airlift and tanker missions simultaneously. More than half of the aircraft in the KC-135 force are operated by the reserve component. All KC-10s are maintained in the active force; these aircraft are flown by both active and reserve associate crews.
Table IV-16 shows the current and projected inventory of long-range tankers.
| Table IV-16 | ||||
| Long-Range Tanker Aircraft (PMAI) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| FY 1995 | FY 1996 | FY 1997 | FY 1998 | |
| KC-10 | 54 | 54 | 54 | 54 |
| KC-135 [a] | 478 | 472 [b] | 472 | 472 |
| [a] Includes active and reserve components. [b] The reduction relative to FY 1995 reflects transfers from the operational inventory to meet training and depot maintenance needs. | ||||
Sealift
Sealift capacity comes from three sources: ships operating in commercial trade; commercial ships under long-term charter to the Defense Department; and government-owned ships maintained in reserve status. These vessels provide three primary types of capacity: container capacity, which is useful primarily for moving supplies; roll-on/roll-off (RO/RO) capacity (measured in square footage), which is needed to move the equipment of combat units; and tanker capacity, for fuels. In addition, the older breakbulk ships in the inventory can move both military equipment and supplies.
The U.S.-flag commercial fleet contains 207 ships with military utility. These include 107 dry cargo ships, 98 tankers, and two passenger ships. Another 129 commercial vessels that could contribute to military missions -- 55 dry cargo ships, 67 tankers, and seven passenger ships -- are maintained in the effective U.S. control (EUSC) fleet. EUSC ships are owned by U.S. companies or their foreign subsidiaries and registered in nations whose laws do not preclude the ships' requisitioning for military purposes.
Currently, DoD is chartering eight dry cargo ships and nine tankers from commercial operators to transport military cargoes to locations not accessible via regular commercial routes. The number of ships under charter for this purpose varies little from year to year.
For more than a decade, the proportion of container ships in the commercial fleet has been increasing. Although these ships are well suited to the movement of most military supplies and munitions, they cannot carry many types of unit equipment without the installation of adaptive devices. Even with those devices, the time required to deploy unit equipment in container ships taken from trade can be half again as long as that required on government-owned RO/RO ships -- a delay that is militarily unacceptable. Therefore, to meet the very demanding unit deployment timetables of regional contingencies, it is necessary to acquire RO/RO and similar ships and maintain them at high readiness levels.
Today, the government maintains 92 ships in reserve status for use in military operations. These ships are kept in varying degrees of readiness, with the majority available for deployment in four to 10 days. Of the 92 vessels:
The RRF is an important source of lift for military operations. The force includes both breakbulk and RO/RO cargo ships, as well as tankers specially configured to deliver fuel in damaged ports or over the shore.
A total of 92 vessels are maintained in the RRF -- 80 dry cargo ships, 10 tankers, and two passenger ships. Of these, eight cargo ships and two tankers are serving on an interim basis with the afloat prepositioning force and two cargo ships are supporting military exercises. The RRF is managed by the Maritime Administration within the Department of Transportation. Funding for the force -- including ship acquisitions and fleet maintenance -- is budgeted by the Department of Defense. Expenditures on RRF vessels maintained in reserve status are financed through the National Defense Sealift Fund; the ships used for afloat prepositioning and exercises are funded through the Service operation and maintenance accounts.
The above chart shows the current and projected contribution of each source of sealift to moving unit equipment. Also shown is the RO/RO capacity (square footage) recommended in the MRS BURU for the deployment of forces in two nearly simultaneous major regional conflicts.
As mentioned earlier, commercial ships can be used to move most sustainment cargoes. Today, the U.S.-flag and EUSC fleets have more than enough capacity to meet the sustainment demands of two MRCs occurring nearly simultaneously.
Prepositioning
By prepositioning unit equipment and war reserve materiel afloat and ashore near potential operating locations, the United States increases the number of forces that can be deployed and supported quickly in a crisis. This year, DoD is using 34 ships for afloat prepositioning. Of these, 23 have been chartered from the commercial fleet, 10 come from the RRF, and one ship is government owned:
INCREASING CAPABILITIES TO MEET FUTURE CHALLENGES
The Department has embarked on an ambitious modernization program to replace obsolete mobility forces and achieve the force deployment goals established in the MRS BURU.
Airlift Programs
Airlift investments in coming years will focus on replacing the aging fleet of C-141 intertheater aircraft. Under a plan announced in November 1995, the Department has decided to continue the C-17 program beyond the 40 aircraft previously authorized for procurement. Accordingly, the Department is budgeting for a total force of 120 C-17 aircraft. This decision was reached after a comprehensive review by the Defense Acquisition Board (DAB) of alternative airlift aircraft. Studies conducted for the DAB review concluded that substantially more than 40 C-17s would be needed to meet strategic and tactical mission requirements at an acceptable level of risk. Moreover, the studies showed that a 120-aircraft C-17 force would provide the greatest amount of flexibility in meeting airlift requirements, at a cost only marginally higher than the other alternatives that met the requirements.
The decision to continue C-17 procurement would not have been possible had it not been for the dramatic turnaround of the C-17 program. The program demonstrated significant improvements over the past two years in schedule performance and production quality; production costs also are now well understood and are under control. The C-17 recently completed the most rigorous evaluation of reliability, maintainability, and availability ever conducted on a military airlift aircraft, and its performance far exceeded expectations.
As a further result of the DAB review, the Department is examining options to strengthen the Civil Reserve Air Fleet as a complement to the C-17 force. Options under consideration include the possibility of offering incentives to commercial carriers to operate aircraft that have greater military utility than standard commercial designs.
Enhancements in intratheater capability will come both from the C-17 and from the introduction later in this decade of a new version of the C-130 tactical transport. The upgraded C-130J model will incorporate a redesigned two-crew-member flight station, a modern-technology engine and propeller system, and an integrated digital avionics subsystem. The C-130J also will offer savings in operating and support costs relative to the older C-130 models it is slated to replace. The first C-130J was completed in October 1995 and is currently undergoing flight tests. Low-rate production of the aircraft will begin in FY 1996.
The KC-135 tanker force also is being upgraded. A number of these aircraft are being equipped with a multipoint refueling system to enhance their ability to refuel Navy and Marine Corps, as well as NATO and other allied, aircraft in flight. The development phase of this program will be completed in FY 1997; plans call for a total of 33 multipoint refueling modification kits to be acquired by FY 2003.
Sealift and Afloat Prepositioning Programs
The MRS BURU validated a need for the acquisition of 19 LMSRs. As currently envisioned, the LMSR program will provide eight ships for afloat prepositioning of Army combat and support equipment, and 11 ships for transporting combat and support equipment of early-deploying heavy Army divisions. The amount of LMSR capacity dedicated to prepositioning may increase in the future if requirements dictate. The LMSR program is now under way, with five ships (converted commercial vessels) scheduled for delivery in FY 1996-1997 -- a delay of roughly 14 to 17 months relative to previous plans. Three newly constructed ships will enter service in FY 1998. The FY 1997-2001 program includes almost $1.9 billion in ship construction funds for the LMSR program.
The acquisition of an additional prepositioning ship, funds for which were appropriated in FY 1995, will enhance the capability of the maritime prepositioning force. A requirement for at least two more ships has been validated. The Department will begin procuring these ships early in the next decade, after the higher-priority LMSR program has been completed.
The MRS BURU validated the need for an expansion of RO/RO capacity in the RRF by roughly 2.8 million square feet, to help meet surge demands early in a deployment. That translates into a total requirement for 36 RO/RO vessels. The RRF currently contains 31 such ships, including 14 used commercial RO/ROs purchased since the Gulf War.
At the Congress's direction, the Department is investigating a National Defense Features (NDF) program that would provide funds to make commercial ships more militarily useful. While an NDF program may provide for some sealift needs, placing high-readiness RO/RO vessels in the RRF is the most effective way to meet the Department's surge sealift requirement. The FY 1997 budget therefore includes funds to continue procuring RO/RO vessels for the RRF on the open market.
Programs for Prepositioning Ashore
The Army is in the process of restructuring its unit equipment prepositioning worldwide. Two heavy brigade sets of prepositioned equipment will be maintained in central Europe -- down from the nine sets prepositioned during the Cold War years. A third brigade set, in Italy, is available for use on NATO's southern flank or elsewhere in the region. In Southwest Asia, the first of two armor brigade sets planned for the region was prepositioned in Kuwait in FY 1995. A second set (with a division base) will be prepositioned in Qatar by about FY 2000. In addition, an armor brigade set will be prepositioned in Korea in FY 1997. These initiatives strengthen deterrence, shorten response times in crises, and enhance warfighting capability in these volatile regions.
The Air Force also is restructuring its unit equipment prepositioning programs. It is resizing and relocating equipment stocks, primarily war reserve materiel and vehicles, maintained in Europe and Southwest Asia. These measures will enhance capabilities for major regional conflicts and other contingencies.
The Marine Corps stores equipment and 30 days of supplies in Norway for a brigade-sized Marine Air-Ground Task Force. This materiel, which was prepositioned in the 1980s to reinforce NATO's northern flank, is employed in cold-weather training for U.S. forces as well as in NATO exercises. The Department currently is examining potential uses of the prepositioned materiel for limited contingency operations outside northern Europe.
CONCLUSION
A robust mobility capability is essential to meeting post-Cold War demands with fewer forces and a reduced permanent overseas presence. The FY 1997-2001 program continues the long-standing partnership between the Department of Defense and the transportation industry, depending primarily on the private sector for the capabilities it can provide and using defense funds to buy capabilities that have little or no commercial utility. The mobility enhancements planned for FY 1997 and beyond, coupled with continued augmentation from the commercial sector, will ensure that the United States is able to respond promptly and effectively in situations ranging from natural disaster to major war.
